Map design

In contrast to the creative freedom of painting or graphic illustration, map design must observe rigid limitations because the locations of geographic features such as rivers, national boundaries, and coastlines are tied to reality. Map design is defined as the systematic process of arranging and assigning meaning to elements on a map for the purpose of communicating geographic knowledge in a pleasing format. During the twentieth century, standardized symbols and designs evolved for reference maps such as topographic maps. However, nonstandard maps with unique purposes must be designed within a process that encompasses creativity, experimentation, and evaluation. Careful design is crucial to map effectiveness to avoid distorted or inaccurately represented information.

 

Design process

 

The first design stage involves determining the type of map to be created for the problem at hand. Decisions must be made about the map's spatial format in terms of size and shape, the basic layout, and the data to be represented. In this step, the experience, cultural background, and educational attainment of the intended audience must be considered. The second stage involves the exploration of preliminary ideas through the manipulation of design parameters such as symbols, color, typography, and line weight. In the third step, alternatives are evaluated and may be accepted or rejected. Under some circumstances, prototype maps may be developed for sample readers as a means of evaluating design scenarios. The last step involves the selection of a final design.

Design considerations include the selection of scale (the relationship between the mapping media format and the area being mapped), symbols to represent geographic features, the system of projection (the method used to translate Earth coordinates to flat media), titles, legends, text, borders, and credits. The process of arranging each map element is referred to as map composition. Success in map composition is achieved when design principles are applied to create a pleasing image with a high degree of information content and readability.

 

Design principles

 

Map design principles have emerged from the disciplines of cartography, graphic arts, and psychology. They include balance, the relationship between figure and ground, visual acuity, hierarchy, and contrast.

 

Balance

 

Balance refers to arranging major map elements within the map frame in a visually appealing manner. A map is off balance if all elements appear on one side of its frame, leaving a large amount of open space. The visual balance is closely tied to the map's optical center, located slightly above the center of the rectangle formed by the map border.

 

Figure and ground relationships

 

As discovered through the work of psychologists, the mind organizes a map's visual area into two separate perceptual fields—figures that the eye focuses on, and the background. The differentiation of land and water through the application of color or shading is a common method for helping to establish these two fields (Fig. 1).

 

 

Fig. 1  Figure and ground relationship. (a) Map without shading does not assist the user in isolating the subject from the background. (b, c) Map shaded in two different ways improves definition. (d) Addition of labels to show place and of the graticule, clearly differentiates subject and background.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Visual acuity

 

Map elements must be readable by most map users. Visual acuity refers to the threshold minimal size of objects that can be correctly identified. For example, what is the smallest size of lettering that can be interpreted on a map designed for a viewing distance of 18 in. (46 cm).

 

Hierarchy

 

Maps should exhibit a clear hierarchy of importance for each type of element, the most important elements having the greatest visual prominence. For example, the importance of places can be established using variation in sizes of point symbols or place names.

 

Contrast

 

An absence of contrast can result in a map element being lost in its surroundings. Contrast refers to variation in color, line weight, texture, or detail.

 

 

Computers

 

Computers now duplicate all capabilities of manual map design. Design iterations can be explored and evaluated faster and with lower cost, compared to manual drafting methods (Fig. 2). The digital environment facilitates the independent storage of map elements that can be combined to form composite images. Automated processes have also impacted map reproduction; it is now possible for the cartographer to prepare a map image for printing without a photographic step.

 

Fig. 2  Design iterations created by a computer.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Research in cartographic design has recently focused on the application of artificial intelligence to the automation of text placement. Other computer innovations such as interactive mapping allow a map user to act as map creator in exploring geographic relationships by selecting and tailoring data sets available through software or the World Wide Web. In addition to its benefits to the design process, mapping software has brought challenges to the mapping sciences, including the proliferation of poorly designed maps constructed by persons untrained in cartography.  See also: Cartography; Computer graphics; Map projections; Map reproduction

Thomas A. Wikle

 

Bibliography

 

 

  • A. H. Robinson et al., Elements of Cartography, 6th ed., John Wiley, 1995
  • C. H. Wood and C. P. Keller, Design: Its place in cartography, Cartographic Design: Theoretical and Practical Perspectives, John Wiley, 1996
  • alifazeli=egeology.blogfa.com